NORMATIVE THEORIES OF THE PRESS - 6 THEORIES

ABSTRACT 

 A theory, in the general sense of the word, is an analytic structure designed to explain a set of observations. Mass media do not operate in a vacuum. This assertion is generally agreed upon, and has led researches to study the relationship between mass media and the government. This paper, seeks to conduct an overview of contrasting theories of purpose and examine some principles of media performance. It is universally agreed that the media is expected to carry out three basic functions, to inform, to educate and to entertain. However, several scholars, best known among them Dennis McQuail, have sought to create a more complex study of the press theories, especially in terms of their explanation on ideas to operate with a specific system of social values. It show how the press operated under the various political environments. The normative theory of the press affirms how things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad They are referred to as normative theories. By this we mean functions as they should be according to dominant criteria, in some cases an ideal, in others a necessity; and they constitute guidelines to media structure and performance within the environment in which it operate. 

INTRODUCTION 

Theories are academic foundation of every discipline, they are important because they are the means by which we codify and organise what we know, they allow scholar leaders and student to transform information into knowledge, also theories focus our attention on important variable and relationship, a theory is like a map of a city on which you can view the street, housing, development and others, theories functions as book guide and helps use understand, interpret, judge and act. A theory is not just an explanation; it is a way of packaging reality, a way of understanding it, human beings always represent reality symbolically and we are always operational in the realms of theory, a theory is a system of though a way of looking, in the end we need to realise two things about theory. Theory is the product of human judgment and discussion and that different people prefer different ways of learning Theories introduces you to new ideas and helps you see things in a new way, theories may change but they may stick around for a little while they are useful, insightful and interesting that they are not easily, A theory is an explanation of a process; it should be seen as a statement or argument in favour of a particular approach According to Julia T Wood, a theory offers an account of what some thing is, how it works, what it produces or cause to happen, and what can change how it operate, theories are human constructions, symbolic ways we represent phenomena. Thus theories represents point of view. Also according to Rosenberry and Vicker, theories are statements that predict or explain how certain phenomena are related to one another. Theory is defined according to the oxford advance dictionary as a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain something which exist as or a set of principles on which an activity is based, in developing theories we are trying to explain something difficult to understand Kerlinger (1973) has given a compressive definition celebrated definition of theory. He says a theory is “a set of interrelated constructs, definition of propositions that gives a systematic view about phenomena “by specifying relations among variable with the purpose of explaining and predicting such phenomena cited by Anaeto, Onabanjo and Osifeso Mass communication theory Baran (2002) opines that mass communication theories are explanation and predictions of social phenomena that attempt to relate mass communication to various aspects of our personal and cultural lives or social system. And to understand mass communication theories, he says the following important ideas have to be considered: 

• There is no one mass communication theory. Mass communication theorist have produced numerous theories that explain mass communication process 

• Mass communication theories are often borrowed from other social science field, mass communication theories comes from field like sociology, psychology, language and so on .mass communication theorist adapt these borrow theories to questions and issues relating to communication 

 • Mass communication theories are human constructions, people create them. Therefore, their creation is influenced by human bias – the time in which we live , the position we occupy , and a host of other factors 

 • Mass communication theories are dynamic. they undergo frequent recasting , acceptance and rejection Goals of mass communication theories Severin and Tankard (2001) state the following as the goal of mass combination theory, 

• They help explain the effect of mass communication 

• They explain the uses to which people put mass communication 

• They explain how people learn from the mass media 

• They explain the role of mass media in shaping the peoples values and views Types of theories The following are the kind theories as given by McQuail (2005) :  • Social Science Theory • Working Theory • Common Sense Theories • Normative Theories Social scientific theories 

These theories as are generalisations derived from systematic observation and objective analysis of mass media variables, employing methods associated with empirical research in the social science (Folarin, 2002.) 

Social scientific theories are powerful and have universal relevance because they follow the scientific method. Theories in this category are unchangeable .they are subjected to evolution as new fact emerges from repeated tests and analyses Working theories These are derived by “experience in carrying out certain activity by which it is possible to arrive at conclusion that are not the product of test or experiment and observation (Daramola, 2003.) McQuail call them working theories because they consist mainly of guidelines, techniques, tradition and convention that guide the work of media production and give consistency over time As tradition, convention, values and criteria in the media endure over them, and especially as they are subjected to observation and analysis by scholars , they begin to take on the nature of theory and then become working theory. For instance journalist all over the world appear to have the same news judgment values.

Common Sense theory These theories are derived without any elaborate study or observation to establish a truism. They rely solely on common sense, the obvious result or implication of an action; this is intelligently understood for what it is without necessarily performing an experiment. According to McQuail (2005) this encompasses the knowledge of the media that people posses as media consumers, though such people may lack expertise which will enable them to crystallise those experiences into reliable or even valid generalisation Normative Theories. 

Normative theories 

Normative theories seek to locate media structure and performance in the milieu (environment) in which they operate, they are observation of situation within which the press operate. The basic assumption of the normative theory is that, “the press always take on the form and coloration of the social and political structure within which it operate” (Siebert, Peterson and Schramm, 1995) cited by Anaeto et al 2008, it is also described as a theory that deal with what ought to be. They are theories that explain the expected operation of media under political and economical circumstance The origin of normative theories of the press seen from two opposing view point 1. Radical libertarian (first amendment absolutist) and technocratic control, the first amendment absolutist takes the idea of “ free press” as literal and oppose government regulation while the technocrats do not trust the media and believes in use of regulators to act in the public interest 2. Propaganda and mass society theories are used to justify media regulation. There are six normative theories of the press, in 1950 Siebert et al mentioned four theories, two more were added by McQuail in 1980.these theories are • Authoritarian theory • Libertarian theory • Social responsibility theory • Soviet communist media theory • Democratic participant theory • Developmental theory 

AUTHORITARIAN THEORY 

The authoritarian theory is an idea that placed all forms of communication under the control of a governing elite or authorities. It describes a situation where government in the hands of a tyrant or ruling elite who exercises repressive powers over the people, lays down the laws as to what the media can communicate. The media here are servants of state, mouthpiece of government. If they are perceived to fail in that capacity, by showing a degree of editorial independence, they are censored or shut down. In this context, authoritarians justified their control as a means to protect and preserve a divinely ordained social order. In most countries, the control rested in the hands of a king, who in turn granted royal charters or license to media practitioners. Free speech challenges authority and free speech that criticizes, or implies criticism of those in power is regarded as subversive. Hence, practitioners could be jailed for violating charters or licenses could be revoked. Censorship of all types, therefore, was easily possible. Authoritarian control tended to be exercised in arbitrary and erratic ways. Sometimes considerable freedom might exist to publicize minority viewpoints and culture as long as authorities didn’t perceive a direct threat to their power. Authoritarian theory doesn’t prioritize cultivation of a homogenous national culture, it only requires acquiescence to a governing elite. 

LIBERTARIAN PRESS/ FREE PRESS THEORY 

The Libertarian theory or Free Press theory is one of the “Normative theories of press”. The theory originally came from libertarian thoughts from 16th century in Europe. It is an exact opposite of the authoritarian theory. Watson (2000) its first principle is that the free press is servant to none but its readership in its task of informing, educating and entertaining. It is believed that International trade and urbanization undermine the power of a rural aristocracy which leads various social movements like the Protestants reformation, which demands individual’s freedom and their own lives and free thoughts. Liberalism means information is knowledge and knowledge is power. Free expression from any authority, unchecked by censorship – internal or external. Libertarianism claims fearlessness in the pursuit of the truth. The libertarianism is an idea of individualism and limited government which is not harmful to another. Libertarian theory advocates, people are more enough to find and judge good ideas from bad. The theory says people are rational and their rational thoughts lead them to find out what are good and bad. The press should not restrict anything even a negative content may give knowledge and can make better decision whilst worst situation. The libertarian thoughts are exactly against or opposite to the authoritarian theory which says “all forms of communication works under the control of government or elite like king”. The libertarian theory enables people to realize their potential and since news is about people making the news, the press reminds us that the society has not grown to an entity of greater importance than the people comprising it. Whether or not we regard free press as a natural right depends upon how much we assume that people desire to know the truth and will be set free by it. In Areopagitica, a powerful Libertarian tract published in 1644, John Milton asserted that in a fair debate good and truthful arguments will always win out over lies and deceit. This idea came to be known as Milton’s self-righting principle, and it continues to be widely cited by contemporary media professionals as a rationale for preserving media freedom. Libertarians basically follow dictates if their conscience, seek truth, engage in public debate and create a better life for themselves Strength of the free press theory lies in the following; 

 • Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real thing happening in the society without any censorship or any authority blockades. 

• Is reliable with U.S media traditions, as the principle is duly enshrined in the first amendment to the constitution. 

• It gives more values for individuals to express their thoughts in media. 

• Is too positive about individual ethics and rationality. Theory also has its weaknesses, these include; 

• Theory is excessively positive about media’s willing to meet responsibilities which may lead people into negative aspects.

• Ignores need for reasonable control of media. 

• Ignores dilemmas posed by conflicting freedoms. A classic example of this theory, is the Wiki leaks website which published all sorts of confidential or restricted files in public space and especially classified documents. These articles provided brief knowledge about the government and its activities which helps people to identify what is happening in the society and its gives great choices to elect a better president in future. Sometimes these documents may work against the government and its authority that is why most of the country is not willing to allow libertarian thoughts because it may affect their power and kingdom 

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY 

In mid 20th century most of the developing countries and third world nations have used this social responsibility theory of press which is associated with “the Hutchins Commission on the Freedom of the Press” in United States at 1942. In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert, Peterson and Schramm) it’s been stated that “pure libertarianism is antiquated, out dated and obsolete.” That paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social responsibility theory. Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship but at the same time the content of the press should be discussed in public panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or professional self regulations or both. The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian theory because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the external controls in other hand. Here, the press ownership is private and media have an obligation to the public that amount to a form of public stewardship. The social responsibility theory moves beyond the simple “Objective” reporting (facts reporting) to “Interpretative” reporting (investigative reporting). The theory links with the democratic process and the media are guardians of that process, vigilant on behalf of the citizens, with a duty to be honest and fair to all. The theory balances the claims for freedom with the need for responsibility. It urges that in public interest, in the interest of true representation, both sides of a case should be stated. Professionalism was created in the media by setting up a high level of accuracy, truth, and information. The commission of press council also included some tasks based on social responsibility of media, which are as follows: 

• Formulate the code of conduct for the press 

• Improve the standards of journalism. 

• Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist. 

• Criticize and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct. Social responsibility theory appealed to the idealism of individual media practitioners and tried to unite them in service of cultural pluralism. It encouraged them to see themselves as front-line participants in the battle to preserve democracy in a world drifting inexorably towards totalitarianism. Dennis McQuail (1987) summarized the basic principles of the theory as follows: 

• Media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to society 

• These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high or professional standards of informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance. 

• In accepting and applying these obligations, media should be self-regulating within the framework of law and established institutions. 

• The media as a whole should be pluralist and reflect the diversity of their society, giving access to various points of view and to rights of reply. 

 • Society and the public have a right to expect high standards of performance and intervention. 

• The media should avoid whatever might lead to crime, violence, or civil disorder or give offence to minority groups. For this theory to work successfully, it would demand a pluralist media in a pluralist society and is only responsible through multiple ownership. Critics of Social Responsibility Theory are of the belief that 

 • Media will not play monopoly because the audience and media scholars will raise questions if media published or broadcast anything wrongly or manipulate any story. 

• Media Standards will improve. 

• Media will concern all class audience rather than focus on higher classes in the society. 

• Media may work autonomously but certain thing is controlled by the government and other public organization. 

However, one way of satisfying the demands of this theory is the establishment of public service broadcasting in many parts of the world. This will ensure cultural and political pluralism. 

SOVIET MEDIA THEORY

After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new political system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles. The newly formed communist party by Lenin shows much interest in the media which serves to the working class in the country and their welfares. So the Soviet originated a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology and called it The Soviet Media Theory also known as Communist Media Theory. The same theory was developed and followed by Adolf Hitler’s Nazi in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. The government undertakes or controls the total media and communication to serve working classes and their interest. Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and other media. The government media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as well as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory advocates that all media message systems are in the service of the state, as well as voice of the people. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create interests towards the media. CRITICS OF SOVIET MEDIA THEORY 

• Soviet media theory looks similar like authoritarian theory but the core part is different from each other. In authoritarian theory is a one way communication, these are is no feedback allowed from the public but in Soviet media theory is a two way communication at the same time the whole media is controlled or works under the leadership. 

• Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press without any restriction and it can serve people without any authoritative blockades. 

• Soviet media theory allows some restriction based on the nation interest rather than communist theories like soviet media theory, the journalist or press should support the leadership rather than a watchdog

• If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer a lot. 

DEVELOPMENT MEDIA THEORY 

This propounded by Dennis McQuail (1987) canvasses media support for an existing government and its efforts to bring about socio-economic development. It argues that until a nation is well established and its economic development well underway, media must be supportive rather than critical of government, but assist them in implementing their policies. As the name implies, he theory relates to media in third world nations. It favours journalism that seeks out good news, requires that bad news stories are treated with caution, for such stories could be economically damaging to a nation in the delicate throes of growth and change. The media is seen to fulfill particular social and political duties; hence media freedom while desirable should be subordinated to national integration, socio-economic modernization, promotion of literacy and cultural creativity. Development media theory seeks to accentuate the positive, it nurtures the autonomy of the developing nations and gives special emphasis to indigenous cultures. It is both a theory of state support and one of resistance to the norms of competing nations and competing theories of media. As the press performs its responsibilities, according to McQuail, it bears the following tenets in mind: 

• Media must accept and carry out positive development tasks that are in line with the policies formulated by the political leadership and freedom of the press should not be at variance with economic priorities of the government and the development needs of the citizenry. 

• Media should therefore give priorities to the coverage of those areas that touch on the lives of the people. In other words, content should be development-driven and should centre on socio-economic and political lives of the people.

• In the overall interest of development, the state has the right to intervene in media operations by the use of censorship devices, especially when the activities of the press are not in consonance with the development objectives of the government. Mass media should accord priority to politically, geographically and culturally contiguous developing countries in their coverage as part of the holistic strategy for less developed societies. McQuail and other scholars like him certainly deserve credit for their penetrating insight, especially into what appears to be common line thinking among leaders of developing countries. But certainly, the expression of these principles can do with some fine-tuning, so as to make them more useful and at that same time in terms acceptable to all conscientious journalist, as working guidelines. It has to be remembered that in spite of the normative truism that “the press always takes on the form and coloration of social and political structures within which it operates”. There are certain journalist values and conventions which are cherished by media professionals in most parts of the worlds, and which therefore impinge on their manner of operation and on their self-perception. Some journalist who have been trained in the western industrialized country or the other see themselves as operating with “ libertarian and social responsibility” principles, which were, in any case the main principles inculcated in them even in their nations training institutions, prior to the advent of development journalism. 

DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT THEORY

This represents the sort of media purpose the idealist dreams up. It is one which any healthy democracy should regard as a goal. This theory challenges reigning theories and offers a positive strategy towards the achievement of new forms of media institution. Democratic participant theory stands for defense against commercialization and monopoly while at the same time being resistant to the bureaucracy of public media institutions. The model emphasizes the role of the receiver in the communication process and integrates receiver’s rights to relevant information, to be heard as well as to hear and be shown. Media messages and content shouldn’t be affected by the bureaucratic and political control. Media existence should be proved in respect of the interests and needs of the recipient and shouldn’t be justified in respect of interests and needs of the media entity. This theory encourages small scale multiple, local, non-institutional media because they link senders with receivers and also give favour to interaction’s horizontal designs. To sum this up, according to authoritarian theory, the media controlled and censored by the ministries in the country but libertarian is fully free without any intervention of any authority or government, Social responsibility theory – press freedom in one hand but other hand they controlled the press by raising question and Soviet media theory, the whole control of the media is under the leader of the nation.

 REFERENCES 

Anaeto,S .G, Onabanjo, O.S. & Osifeso, J.B (2008) Models and theories of Communication. America: Africa Renaissance Book Incorporated. Folarin. B. (2005) Theories of Mass- Communication. Ota: Bakinfol Publications. Holmes, D (2006) Communication Theory. Stephen, W. Littlejohn/ Karena, F.Theories of Human Communication. Eighth Edition. Siebert, F.S, Peterson, T, & Schramm, W. (1963) Four theories of the Press. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Watson, J. (2003) Media Communication. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.